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Predator vs prey conclusion example4/12/2024 Innate traits are also referred to as canalized. The process when the expression of a trait becomes invariant to the environment. Encompasses various behaviors, such as vigilance, predator detection, alarm calling, fleeing, hiding, or employing defensive behavioral or morphological traits, all aimed at increasing survival probability. Plastic prey responses have recently been found to be transgenerational, affecting multiple generations ( Liberman et al., 2019).Ī range of adaptive strategies exhibited by prey species to minimize the risk of predation. Experiments testing for NCEs and prey responses simulate predation risk without causing actual lethality using predator-associated cues. Both consumptive and non-consumptive processes are linked to fitness and affect prey populations ( Preisser et al., 2005 Preisser and Bolnick, 2008). Predator-induced phenotypic plasticity, where organisms alter phenotype in response to predation risk, often comes at a significant cost ( Tollrian and Harvell, 1999 Whitman et al., 2009). NCEs are also known as ‘trait-mediated interactions’ – indirect effects of predation risk that induce shifts in prey behavior, physiology, development, cognition and morphology, among other traits ( Werner and Peacor, 2003 Peckarsky et al., 2008 Peacor et al., 2022). However, the notion that predation is restricted to direct effects – affecting prey density through consumption – is one aspect of the story predation also involves non-lethal or non-consumptive effects (NCEs see Glossary). When we consider predation, the first impression that comes to mind is an organism feeding on another. Predator–prey interaction (PPI) involves both direct (consumptive) and indirect (non-consumptive) effects of predators on prey. Predation is a major selective force that influences multiple levels of biological organization, from genes, populations and community dynamics to ecosystem structure and functioning. I outline how studies can integrate the investigation of NCEs with advanced behavioral, genomic and neurological tools to provide novel insights into physiological and cognitive health. I discuss the evolution of instinct, anxiety and other cognitive disorders, the shaping of brain connectomes, stress-induced aging and the development of behavioral coping styles. In this Commentary, I highlight research that uses NCEs in predator–prey systems to provide novel insights into cognition, adaptation, epigenetic inheritance and aging. Interestingly, predator–prey systems can also be used as experimental models to answer physiology, cognition and adaptability questions. Numerous experimental studies have incorporated NCEs in investigating predator–prey dynamics in the past decade. These defensive strategies have physiological consequences for prey, affecting their growth, reproduction and immune function to name a few. Non-consumptive effects (NCEs) can induce changes in prey behavior, including altered foraging strategies, habitat selection, life history and anti-predator responses. Predators play a crucial role in shaping ecosystems through the consumption of prey species and non-consumptive effects. Predator–prey interactions are a cornerstone of many ecological and evolutionary processes that influence various levels of biological organization, from individuals to ecosystems.
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